1. Meaning of Name: Scholars give various translations of her name, all pretty similar. Olmsted translates it as “Horse Goddess”. Green derives it from the word for horse. Kondratiev translates it as “Great Mare”. Nantonos Aedui, of Epona.net translates it as “Divine Mare” or “She who is like a mare”. Mackillop gives us “Divine Horse” or “Horse Goddess”. ¹
2. Pronunciation: Ep-AWN-aa
3. Other Names and Epithets: Olmsted gives us Rîganâ, and its Latin equivalent Regina, both meaning “Queen”. More doubtfully, he also gives us Atanta, Dibonia, Dunna, Vovesia, Catona, Epotia, Eponina, and Imona, from his translation of the Rom Inscription. However, this translation is not generally accepted among scholars. Ceisiwr Serith mentions Meduna, a name derived from the Gaulish word for “mead”, as a by-name for Eponâ. And Epona.net also mentions the Latin Regina.²
4. Interpretatio Romana: No exact equivalent, but Eponâ was herself the subject of official Roman worship from 50 CE onward. ³
5. Irish Equivalent: Macha. ⁴
6. Indo-European Equivalent: Hékwonā, the Indo-European mare, mead, and sovereignty Goddess.⁵
7. Realm: Ueronadâ/Upper World Goddess
8. Iconography: Eponâ is depicted in two main ways – sidesaddle mounted, and seated between two horses. She is also occasionally shown in a cart. When depicted sidesaddle, she is shown wearing a long gown, often with a cloak. She often holds a cornucopia,patera (Roman style offering bowl), or a basket of fruits. She is also often depicted with a dog, a key, a foal, or a mappa (white cloth).⁶
9. Significance: Kondratiev identifies her with the Welsh Mari Lwyd, the “Grey Mary/Grey Mare”, a sort of hobby horse who is taken about by mummers during the Christmas season. From this, he interprets her as the Sovereignty Goddess, the Land Goddess, and the mother of the Child of Light – Maponus, in his view. He identifies her with the winter, but also sees her as a Goddess of fertility and plenty. ⁷ Ceisiwr Serith sees her indo-European equivalent, Hékwonā, as a horse and sovereignty Goddess as well, but also sees her as possessing associations with untamed sexuality, and a pure power which is potentially dangerous. ⁸ The Italian scholar Carlo Ginzburg sees her as the prototype for the later deity of the medieval Diana Cults, and, as such, the leader of the Wild Hunt, something that fits with Kondratiev’s identification of her with the Mari Lwyd. ⁹ The writer(s) of epona.net is generally not willing to go so far, seeing all such elaborate theologies as unproven. ¹⁰ Morpheus Ravenna, in her upcoming Book of the Great Queensees her as a Sovereignty Goddess more or less directly cognate to the Irish Macha or Ro-ech, sharing even by-names with Macha, and, like Her, possessing martial and fertility attributes, as well as the aforementioned Sovereignty function. She sees some of the differences between the Gaulish and Irish figures as due to the effects of Romanization in emphasizing the less martial attributes, of an existing Goddess. ¹¹

The Nature of the Gods: The Gods are by far the best known part of Gaulish Polytheism. We have a vast corpus of Latin inscriptions that give us the names of numerous divinities worshiped by Gauls, and a much smaller corpus of Gaulish-language inscriptions, sometimes to the same deities. We have representations of the Gods, symbols, sometimes in clearly understandable settings, sometimes paired with Classical Greco-Roman symbols or images, which can make meanings clearer. We have literary figures in other Celtic languages, and deities in other Indo-European languages, that can low us to make inferences about Their natures. Even so, not everything is known. They are mysterious, and personal experience with Them is needed to truly understand Them.

Dêwos/Dêwâ – The word for “God”: Derived from Proto-Indo-European Déiwos, meaning “God”, but also having connotations of “Shining Ones” and “Celestial Ones”. The general idea is of a shining being of light. While the earliest term suggests a celestial nature, already by the time of the earliest inscriptions and sanctuaries, offerings are being put into pits and shafts, suggesting that the term came to be applied to Underworld beings as well. It needs to be noted that deities are not perfect beings, are in fact capable of making mistakes and doing wrong. While vastly more powerful and better than human beings, they are nevertheless of a similar nature to us. There is no clear demarcation between Gods and lesser irits, for the most part, either. The term can be applied to a vast range of supernatural beings.¹

Divine Names: Divine names are mostly descriptive epithets that tell us something about the particular deity in question. Thus we have Rosmertâ, the “Good Provider”, or Sucellus, the “Good Striker”, or Taranis, “Thunder”, and so on. We don’t have “true names” of our Gods in the remonial Magick sense. Names do provide clues about the nature of deities, and may be used in meditation or ritual to connect with them. ²

Divine Symbols – Iconography: The greatest source of linkage to the true nature of our Gods comes from a consideration of their symbols. It is really in the realm of symbolism that the most important truths about the divine nature are conveyed. It must be pointed out that a given deity’s weapons or treasures are not possessions in the usual human sense. Rather, they are expressions of that God or Goddess’s inner essence, less property than a part of the deity, expressing profound truths about him or her. The symbols speak directly to the unconscious mind, and so can une us in”, so to speak, to the energy, the feel, the essence of a divine being. By meditating on the symbols of the Gods, and how these symbols relate to one another, we can bring our religion into our souls.

Divine Couples: One trait of specifically Continental Celtic deities needs mention. They often are grouped in divine couples, similar to the Shiva-Shakti of modern Hinduism. Thus, Mercury/Lugus is paired with Rosmertâ, Sucellus with Natnosueltâ, Grannus with Sironâ, and so on. We cannot be certain what these pairings meant. Certainly, they show signs of heaven-Earth pairing, with celestial-seeming male Gods being paired with Goddesses who seem to have characteristics related to Earth and fertility. In addition, the analogy of Shiva and Shakti may suggest that such vine couples may have represented a Goddess providing a power that is then wielded by a God. ³

Format: Where possible, I am going to follow a fairly standardized format in describing the “Intertribal” or “Major” Gaulish deities. We will give one of the most important names of that deity, and meaning of that name. We will give the leading other names and epithets attached to the deity, where it is clear from iconography and scholarship that the same deity is being described by multiple names. We will give the Interpretatio Romana of the deity. This is a Roman deity associated with the Gaulish deity by the Romans, owing to similar attributes. These are not the same deities, but rather other distinct beings with similar attributes, who can allow us to understand the deity better. We will then give Irish and Indo-European equivalents for the deity. These, again, are distinct, different individuals who play the same roles in related pantheons. We will find that the Irish, Indo-European, and Gaulish pantheons resemble one another very closely, with very similar structures, roles, and themes throughout. We will then give the realm of the deity, which is simply whether I think they live in Albios, Dumnos, this world, or some combination of the three. This is always just my opinion. Then, we will describe the iconography of the deity, as found in the archaeological evidence, if anything is in fact known. And finally, we will give a quick round-up of all the best scholarship on the deity and what these theories are. This is where I will also present my own opinions of and personal gnosis from the deity. I’m only moderately imaginative, so I will mostly be presenting the opinions of leading scholars, and letting you, dear reader, make up your own mind.

This rather lengthy poem was written in fits and starts of inspiration over the course of a couple weeks. It has been only minimally checked as to vocabulary and grammar. I use words from the Old Celtic Lexicon, which specifically says not to use it as a citable source, so from a scholarly point of view, the poem is already beyond the pale. I also don’t like the repetitiveness of some of it. “Thus and so is a God/dess” at the beginning and end of each stanza hardly seems inspired, but it’s the best I can do. For the most part, I wrote it in Gaulish first, then translated it into English and did what little checking I have done.

It’s written in an attempt at an 11 syllable meter, with a caesura, alliteration, and some rhyme here and there. I can’t keep it up with anything like consistency, though, so my metrical scheme is more aspiration than reality.

As to the contents of the poem, it’s mostly a laundry list of deities and spirits, with hints of another creation myth different from Adbertos Yemoni, as well as bits and pieces of other myths and a few bits of genealogy. It more hints at things than spells them out, but a lot of real old Celtic language poetry is like that. There no attempt to credit the numberless influences on the poem. I wrote in such a state that I can hardly remember where this or that bit came from in any case. Most of it is standard stuff that will get credited in later discussions. However, I can’t promise to stick consistently with this poem when the time comes to actually talk about Gods. My discussion of deities in the column will be scholarship mixed with some UPG. This is neither. This is art.

A few credits I do remember: my take is Maponus is informed by some discussions with Christopher Scott Thompson about this deity. My discussion of Cernunnos owes a little to the work of C. Lee Vermeers, Ceisiwr Serith, and Frances Fray Bober on this deity, though departs from their visions in various ways. Serith’s work also informs my perspective on Grannus. Michael Enright’s Lady with a Mead Cup informs my take on Rosmertâ. My perspective on Lugus is powerfully influenced by an article by John Koch entitled Further to tongu do dia toinges mo thuath [“Mi a dyngaf dynged it”], &c. My take on several Goddesses is coming to be influenced by that of Morpheus Ravenna, from her not-yet-published Book of the Great Queen, though there are other influences as well.

Sos sentî Dêwoi Galetion				So estî kordâ Dêwon
Dêwoi senoi, au kentê					Au dumnê, au nemê
Atriyâ Dêwon noibon					Dêwon toutânon
Dêwoi eti Dêwâs						Sos sentî Dêwoi Galetion.
 
Anderoi buwânt cintus					Are Bitun, in dumnê
Anderoi drukoi waxtoic					Trebânt in gruwosman
Au Anderobi encât					Rîganâ encât swâ
Rîganâ Dêwâ Cintâ					Matir Dêwon swâ

Taranis estî atir					Atir Dêwon in nemê
Dêwos Nemi, Loucetic					Dêwos Rotâs Sleibic
Estîs Marwetos Drîgos					Dêwos Wiriâs, swâ
Dêwos co Gutê Mârê					Taranis estî atir
 
Eponâ estî Rîganâ					Rîganâ Epon swâ
Rîganâ Talamonos					Rîganâ Eporedon
Rîganâ Ulati swâ					Ulati Toutâs
Areletiâ Marwon						Eponâ estî Rîganâ
 
Rosmertâ estî Rîganâ					Uidluâ Mârâ
Rîganâ Medi Ulati					Ulati Coryi,
Co slatî Uidluâs swâ					Dêwâ Toncnaman
Wegyet ollon estîyo					Rosmertâ estî Rîganâ
 
Lugus estî Tigernos					Dêwos Gaisi swâ
Estîs Gnatos Cernunni					Marwetos Durîgos
Estîs Tigernos Coryi swâ				Dêwos Lugyâs swâ
Toncâtyo Toncnamnûs					Lugus estî Tigernos
 
Boduâ estî Rîganâ					Rîganâ Cathon
Cathuboduâ estsi swâ					Dêwâ Orgeton
Tigernâ Cingeton swâ					Delgetyâ eyonon Batûs
Cantletyâ Toncnamnûs					Boduâ estî Rîganâ
 
Camulus estî Dêwos					Estîs Dêwos Cathi
Estîs Rudianus swâ					Estîs Rudiobus swâ
Estîs Cauâros Mâros					Dêwos co Cladebê
Detyo alboudion swâ					Camulus estî Dêwos
 
Nantosueltâ Rîganâ					Estsi Rîganâ Dumni
Rîganâ Ulani swâ					Dêwâ Tegoslougi
Detyâ ollon dagon swâ					Rîganâ Bekon
Detyâ knutûs argantonc					Nantosueltâ Rîganâ
 
Sucellus estî Dêwos					Estîs Dêwos Dumni swâ
Dêwos co Ordê Mârê					Co Pannî Ulani
Detyos ollon dagon swâ					Dêwos Donnos Mâros
Detyo knutûs argontonc					Sucellus estî Dêwos
 
Briganâ estî Dêwâ					Dêwâ Aidletâs
Dêwâ Aidi Windi swâ					Duxtir Taranês swâ
Dêwâ Medii Noibi swâ					Eti Dêwâ Briganton
Dêwâ Tegoslougi swâ					Briganâ estî Dêwâ
 
Cernunnos estî Dêwos					Atir Noibos Lugi
Diclawetos Cingi					Cingi Dêwobo swâ
Areletios Marwon					Pennosenisteros
Eti Rîxs Marwon swâ					Cernunnos estî Dêwos
 
Sironâ estî Dêwâ estsi					Dêwâ Lugrâs
Dêwâ Admessarâs swâ					Rîganâ Tsirânon
Estsi Dêwâ Natrigon					Dêwâ Andounânon
Detyâ Slaniin swâ					Sironâ estî Dêwâ
 
Grannus estî Dêwos					estîs Dêwos Louki
Dêwos Teni in Dubrê					delgetyo Andounnin
Andounnin Slaniâs swâ					Liyagos estîs swâ
Liyagos welisamos					Grannus estî Dêwos
 
Sulis estî Dêwâ						Dêwâ Sâwelii
Dêwâ Roudii Baragii					Dêwâ Dii Windi
Dêwâ Letonoxtii swâ					Weletyâ ollon swâ
Eti dede slaniin					Sulis estî Dêwâ
 
Ogmios estî Dêwos					Estîs Dêwos Nertos
Dêwos Lânos Galâs swâ					Dêwos Caletos swâ
Dêwos Dungwi Arganti					Dêwos Lânos Wati
Estîs Dêwos Senos swâ					Ogmios estî Dêwos
 
Maponos estî Dêwos					Dêwos Yowinkos swâ
Wonesâtyo in Dumnon					wer trition dion
Trebâtyo intir Anderûs					Wisset Brixtom Anderon
Wermonasyo in Bitun					Maponus estî Dêwos
 
Toutatîs sentî Dêwoi					Dêwoi Toutânon swâ
Sentei Dêwoi Contrebion					Dêwoi Trebânon swâ
Cauaroi Toutânon swâ					Dêwoi Cnocon Caitonc
Menekos Senisteroi					Toutatîs sentî Dêwoi
 
Toutodêwâs sentî swâ					Dêwâs Toutânon swâ
Sentsies Dêwâs Contrebion				Dêwâs Trebânon swâ
Tigernâs Talamwos swâ					Dêwâs Abonânon
Co ulatê wer brogion					Toutodêwâs sentî swâ
 
Dêwâs Matres sentî					Dêwâs Toutânon swâ
Sentsies Dêwâs Contrebion				Dewâs Trebânon swâ
Toni Dêwâs Weniânon					Wegyontyâs Toncnaman
Menekos Senisterâs					Dêwâs Matres Sentî
 
Talamodêwoi sentî					Dêwoi biccoi papâs pettiâs
Papi Clocci, Papi Prenni				eti Papi Tegi
Dusioi sentî allatoi					Trebânt in caitê swâ
Bongent prennûs knutûs swâ				Dusioi sentî allatoi
 
Anderoi trebânt in Dumnê				In gruwosmnê swâ
Trebânt ander bitun swâ					Co brixtom nerton swâ
Anderoi drukoi waxtoic					Anderoi wissacoi
Pos trebânt in gruwosmnê				Anderoi trebânt in Dumnê
 
Sos sentî Dêwoi Galetion				So estî kordâ Dêwon
Dêwoi senoi, au kentê					Au dumnê, au nemê
Atriyâ Dêwon noibon					Dêwon toutânon
Dêwoi eti Dêwâs						Sos sentî Dêwoi Galetion.
 
 
 
These are the God of the Galatîs			This is the company of the Gods
The Old Gods, from the beginning			From the Underworld, from Heaven
The Genealogy of the Holy Gods				The Gods of the Tribes
The Gods and Goddesses					These are the Gods of the Galatîs
 
The Anderoi were first					Before the world, in the Underworld
The Aneroi evil and bad					Lived in the darkness
From the Anderoi came					The Queen came, so
The Queen, the First Goddess				The Mother of the Gods, so.
 
Taranis is Father					Father of the Gods, in Heaven
The God of Heaven, and of Lightning			The God of the Wheel, and of the Mountain
He is the Slayer of the Dragon				The God of Truth, so
The God with the Great Voice,				Taranis is Father.
 
Eponâ is a Queen					Queen of Horses, so
Queen of the Earth,					Queen of Cavalry
Queen of Sovereignty, so				Sovereignty of the Tribe
Guide of the Dead,					Eponâ is a Queen.
 
Rosmertâ is a Queen					The Great Seeress
Queen of the Mead of Sovereignty			Sovereignty of the Warband
With the Wand of the Seeress, so			Goddess of Fate
Who Weaves All Things					Rosmertâ is a Queen
 
Lugus is Lord,						The God of the Spear, so
He is the Son of Cernunnos				the Slayer of the Evil King
He is the Lord of the Warband, so			the God of the Oath, so
Who Swears Destinies					Lugus is Lord
 
Boduâ is a Queen					Queen of Battles
Cathuboduâ She is, so					The Goddess of Slaughters
The Lady of Heroes, so					Who holds their deaths
Who sings fates						Boduâ is a Queen
 
Camulus is a God					He is the God of Battle
He is Rudianus, so					He is Rudiobus, so
He is a Great Hero					The God with the Sword,
Who gives all victory, so				Camulus is a God
 
Nantosueltâ Queen					Is the Queen of the Underworld
The Queen of Abundance, so				The Queen of the Household
Who gives all good, so					The Queen of Bees
She gives crops and silver				Queen Nantosueltâ
 
Sucellus is a God					He is God of the Underworld, so
The God with the Great Hammer				The God with the Cup of Abundance
Who gives all good, so					The Great Dark Lord
Who gives crops and silver				Sucellus is a God
 
Briganâ is a Goddess					The Goddess of the Hearth
The Goddess of the Shining Flame, so			The Daughter of Taranis, so
The Goddess of the Sacred Center, so			And the Goddess of High Places
The Goddess of the Household, so			Briganâ is a Goddess
 
Cernunnos is a God					The Holy Father of Lugus
The Opener of the Way					The Way to the Gods, so
The Guide of the Dead					The First Ancestor
And the King of the Dead, so				Cernunnos is a God
 
Sironâ is a Goddess					She is the Goddess of the Moon
The Goddess of Time, so					The Queen of the Stars
She is the Goddess of Serpents				The Goddess of Wells
Who Gives Health/Safety, so				Sironâ is a Goddess
 
Grannus is a God					He is the God of Light
The God of Fire in Water				Who Keeps the Well
The Well of Health/Safety, so				He is a Physician, so
The Greatest of Physicians				Grannus is a God
 
Sulis is a Goddess					The Goddess of the Sun
The Goddess of Red Morning				The Goddess of the Shining Day
The Goddess of Twlight, so				Who Sees All, so
And gives health/safety					Sulis is a Goddess
 
Ogmios is a God						He is a Mighty God
A God Full of Warrior Rage, so				A Hard God, so
The Silver Tongued God					The God Full of Inspiration
He is an old God, so					Ogmios is a God
 
Maponus is a God					He is the Younng God, so
Who Descended into Dumnos				On the Third Day
Who lived among the Anderoi				Who knows the Magic of the Anderoi
Who Rose into the World					Maponus is a God
 
Toutatîs are Gods					Gods of Tribes, so
They are Gods of Districts				Gods of Settlements, so
Heroes of Tribes, so					Gods of Hills and Forests
Often Ancestors						Toutatîs are Gods
 
Toutodêwâs are, so					Goddesses of Tribes, so
They are Goddesses of Districts				Goddesses of Settlements, so
Ladies is the Land, so					Goddesses of Rivers
With Sovereignty over Countries				Toutodêwâs are, so
 
The Dêwâs Matres are					The Goddesses of Tribes, so
They are the Goddesses of Districts			Goddesses of Settlements, so
Also the Goddesses of Families				Who Weave Fate
Often Female Ancestors					The Dêwâs Matres are
 
The Talamodêwoi are					The Small Gods of Each Thing
Each Stone, Each Tree					And of Each House
The Dusioi are wild					They live in the forest, so
They break trees and crops				The Dusioi are wild
 
The Anderoi dwell in Dumnos				in the darkness, so
They dwell under the world, so				with mighty magic, so
The Anderoi evil and bad				The Wise Anderoi
Who dwell in the darkness				The Anderoi dwell in Dumnos
 
These are the God of the Galatîs			This is the company of the Gods
The Old Gods, from the beginning			From the Underworld, from Heaven
The Genealogy of the Holy Gods				The Gods of the Tribes
The Gods and Goddesses					These are the Gods of the Galatîs

When I first started this column, I promised the occasional glimpse of my life in rural Florida. For the most part, I have not kept this promise, as the subject matter has proven too demanding and interesting for me to spend much time on personal subjects. A good break point has been hard to find, a good place to talk about my own life, without damaging my exposition of Gaulish Polytheism itself. But, he point where we shift from worldview to deities is as good a place as any, I suppose, so I will inject a few stories here – stories about a dog, and about our life, and our neighbors.

So, then, how does a Gaulish Polytheist of educated, suburban, Northern origin live in the woods of rural Florida? The unsurprising answer is: not that much differently than anyone else here. It’s a wilder life than most of you are used to, I suppose, but some millions of people in this state of 18 million inhabitants live in more or less the way we do, though perhaps with harder lives than we have, more suffering, and fewer opportunities.

We inhabit a four bedroom house, neither a mansion nor a hovel, on a half-acre of land, in a small rural settlement on the southern fringe of the Ocala National Forest. Orlando, home of the infamous Disney World, is a little more than an hour away. Daytona Beach is less than an hour. Ocala an hour in the other direction. The nearest town is about seven minutes away, and consists of two gas stations, a Dollar General Store, a library, a community center, and a post office. Technically, it’s not a town, as it has no municipal government, but rather a Census Designated Place – a mere wide spot in the road where the Census Department has munificently condescended to count people. For a town with its own City Hall and Police Department, you have to go twenty minutes the other way.

Most of the inhabitants of our little settlement live in trailers. The roads are gravel, and the Community Association (of which my wife, Dawn, and I are Board members) has a terrible time keeping them up during the rainy season. That’s all the Community Association does, by the way, that and keep up a little building generously called the Community Center, where we hold occasional fundraisers to help with the roads. Our neighbors are an interesting lot: mostly white, a few Hispanic, some Northern transplants, some Southerners, a couple fairly affluent, the retirees among them forming a middle stratum, and most terribly poor. Some don’t know where their next meals are coming from. Dawn and I help out where we can, mostly by hiring our neighbors to help us with projects whenever possible. Most of the other middling or affluent people here do the same. When I do this, I work right beside them. When money’s short, sometimes we pay in kind. Sometimes, we drink afterwards together, the privileged and the less privileged swigging rum from the same bottle and swapping stories.

To my knowledge, all of our neighbors are Christian. They do and don’t know about our religion. It’s a bit of an open secret, a thing everyone knows, but no one talks about. At least one neighbor refers to Dawn as the Village Witch, a name she wears with pride.

But tonight’s column isn’t about us. It’s about a dog. We have three dogs, two cats, and about ten chickens. The chickens provide us with eggs. We could live on them if we had to.

One of the dogs used to be a stray. When we first saw him about five years ago, he was emaciated and starving, a pale white hound dog mutt, lean bodied even if he’d had enough food, with a long head and floppy ears. As near as we could see, some lowlife sadistic coward had dumped him out here, something that happens occasionally, but had clearly spent a lifetime abusing him first. He was terrified of people, men in particular, dark haired men like me most of all. He was the most elusive dog I’d ever seen. You couldn’t get within ten feet of him, before he darted back into the woods. But he had a funny, brave habit: he barked at the bears, drove them away from the settled parts of the community.

You see, we have a bit of a bear problem out here. Bears are numerous. They get into people’s garbage. They bed down in people’s yards. They break into chicken coops for the feed. They even have the habit of getting into unlocked trucks looking for food. I’ve seen this myself. One night, I was coming home late, and saw that the lights were on in Dawn’s truck. I wondered why that would be. Was she out looking for something? As I pulled up, a bear lumbered out of the truck’s front seat, and sauntered off into the woods, staring at me insolently. The truck was undamaged except for some leaves on the seats, but we lock our vehicles now. Not from fear of crime, but from fear of bears.

So, then, this white dog would bark at the bears and frighten them off. Well, pretty quickly people figured this out and started feeding him. They’d leave the food out, then retreat until he could overcome his fear and eat it. He acquired several names in that time. I called him Cû Dumni, “Dog of the Underworld”, a sort of Gaulish riff off the Welsh Cwn Annwn. Most people named him Shy Away, from his obvious habits. Dawn, who respected neither my nor the neighbors’ naming choices, named him Caspar, because he was a sort of “friendly ghost” of a dog.

Over time, the dog became less afraid of people. You could get closer to him, though he still retreated eventually. A few less generous types among the neighbors called County Animal Control on him. After all, he got into the garbage from time to time, too. And he barked in the night, keeping the bears in the woods, in their own kingdom. Some people Didn’t Get It, and found it irritating. Animal Control dutifully came out, set traps, and drove around in trucks carrying poles set with nooses, to bring him in. They didn’t catch him. He was just too elusive, too smart. Eventually, they gave up trying, and returned to town, defeated.

Dawn fed Caspar more than anyone else, and he spent more and more time on our land. Eventually, he practically lived in our crawl space, though he still adventured every night. He would let Dawn pet him, and even I could pat him on the head every now and then, though he would then beat a quick retreat.

One wet day, I was in the front yard, I forget for what reason. Caspar was there with me, although a short distance away, as was his habit. Some teens were roaring up and down the road in an ATV, splashing through mud puddles. They were well known as mean kids, from families into drugs and violence. Caspar took off after their ATV, barking. And they steered right for him and ran him over. The ATV flipped him up into the air. He turned over twice, head over tail, and came down with a sickening crunch I could hear from across the yard and the street. They whooped, hollered, and laughed, then drove on without stopping. Poor Caspar, incredibly, got up and limped into the woods.

There were a lot of witnesses: two people across the street, and the next door neighbors, who don’t exactly live close by but still could see. The kids realized they had been seen spotted, and came back. Now, only now, they were all apologies, all remorse. I didn’t believe it for a second, but it wasn’t the time to start a feud. I enlisted them into a search party, and we looked for the dog. We looked all afternoon, but could not find him. Injured, he was more frightened than ever, more elusive. The day ended with me certain the dog had crawled off into the woods to die.

That sad certainty was gone late the next day. A shivering, traumatized, limping Caspar came out of the woods, and up to our house, seeking Dawn, the only person he trusted to help him. So, help him we did. He got him to a vet right away. It turned out that the only injury was a broken leg, so a good fate had actually been sworn for Caspar that day. The setting and bandaging of the leg, plus antibiotics, assorted shots Caspar had never had, and other bills cost more than we could afford, so we took up a collection on Dawn’s Facebook, and assorted websites. Neighbors and others donated, and we were able to pay all Caspar’s medical bills.

We took him in after that, and kept him in the house, while he gradually healed. By the time he was healed up, he was well and truly our dog, pretty well house trained, and even willing to cuddle with us on the couch. So, the dog who once retreated from me at ten feet now is willing let me hold and stroke his ears. Sometimes, men, women, and dogs win victories together – victories of compassion and gentleness, boudios trei trougocariin.

The Two Words for Holy

In most Indo-European languages, there are two words for “holy”. In Old English for example, the word “halig”, which once meant “holy, whole, health giving” was complemented by the word wíh, which meant “sacred, set apart, belonging to the realm of the Gods”. In German, the exact same pair of words was “heilig” and “weih”. In Latin, the words were “sanctus” and “sacer”, while in Greek they were “agios” and hieros”. ¹

It is not clear that forms of these words existed in early Celtic, or in historical Gaulish, though it is likely they did. Words that seem to convey such a meaning are in the list below:

Noibos: Sacred, shining, separated out, of the realm of the Gods.²

Slanos: Holy, safe, whole, sane. ³

Iaccos: Safe, good, cure, treatment, salvation.⁴

Good and Evil

Here are some words for good and evil. The exact breakdown of which words refer to moral good versus evil, as opposed to non-moral good or high quality versus badness or uselessness, is not known.

Mati: Good, favorable, complete. ⁵

Drucos: Evil.⁶

Dagos: Good.⁷

Waxtos: Bad.⁸

Concepts of “Honor”

The Gaulish peoples, in common with the Celtic peoples in general, set great store by personal honor and reputation. Despite this, there is no single word for honor, but rather a number of words, that collectively describe the desirable person: someone of strength, victorious and prosperous, but sharing what they have, living by truth, integrity, loyalty, virtue, and above all with a good reputation.

The following list of words for aspects of “honor” and virtues is the ultimate child of the virtues found in Audacht Morainn, as interpreted by Alexei Kondratiev, translated into Gaulish using Delmarre and Matasovic. It also owes much to a list of virtues created by Maya St. Clair, in the Gaulish Polytheism Community. It should be pointed out, however, that Maya is an Irish Polytheist.

I also should take time to recommend the work of Christopher Scott Thompson on honor in the Gaelic world. It can be found on the web, particularly the website of the Cateran Society. His other work is available on his website. His work has only indirectly informed mine, but his understanding of Gaelic honor concepts in undoubtedly superior to my own. The work of Michael Newton, particularly the Handbook of the Scottish Gaelic World, should also be mentioned here. Again, there is no direct influence, but it will help give understanding of how honor-based societies worked in practice.

Eniequos: Face, honor.⁹

Boudi: Victory, prosperity.¹⁰

Clutos: Fame, a good reputation.¹¹

Nertos: Strength, vigor, power, spiritual power.¹²

Uīros: True, Just, Truth.¹³

Uīroionos: Just, Fair, Equitable, Accurate, Exact, True, Rightful, Appropriate, Due, Sound, Apposite, Straightforward.¹⁴

Uīridos: Virtue.¹⁵

Rextus: Law, right.¹⁶

Uosedlâ: Firmness, calmness, steadiness.¹⁷

Couīriâ: Loyalty, sincerity, good faith.¹⁸

Dilestos: Firm loyalty.¹⁹

Oigetocariâ: Guest friendliness, hospitality, generosity.²⁰

Inrextus: Integrity, inner rectitude.²¹

Comsamaliâ: Even-handedness, fairness, impartiality.²²

Ueliâ: Modesty, honesty.²³

Galâ: Valor, courage, ability.²⁴

Trougocariâ: Compassion, pity.²⁵

Uariâ: Duty.²⁶

Uissus: Knowledge.²⁷

Destiny and Fate

Ideas of “Fate”, Toncnaman, were inherently related to the verb toncet, “he, he, it swears”. The essence of it is that Fate was “that which is sworn”, while to swear was to destine. This leaves open who was doing the swearing. From other evidence, we can probably conjecture that it was most likely Lugus and Rosmertâ, though that will be discussed further in the chapter on deities and spirits.²⁸ & c”, https://www.academia.edu/7242277/Further_to_tongu_do_dia_toinges_mo_thuath_Mi_a_dyngaf_dynged_it_and_c]

Toncnaman: Fate, destiny.²⁹

Uatus: Prophecy, divination, poetic inspiration.³⁰

Animals

We do not have enough evidence to say if the Gauls had animal totems in any meaningful sense. Some tribes appear to have animal names, but most did not. Personal names sometimes contain animal elements, but other times do not. Certainly, animals were powerful residents of the Gaulish mental world, and could serve as symbols of deities and various qualities. Here is a list of some:

Milon: (Small) animal.³¹

Artos: Bear. Fertility, prosperity, and the products of the forest. Associated with the Goddess Artio.³²

Turcos: Boar. War and hunting, hospitality and feasting. The Otherworld.³³

Taruos: Bull. Strength, ferocity, virility. Symbolic of sky and healing deities, especially Taranis and Grannus

Bous: Cow. Fertility, nurturance, motherhood, the moon. Associated with the Goddess Sironâ, who is called Bouindâ (White Cow), and Damonâ (Great Cow).³⁴

Garanus: Crane. Water, wetlands, protection, wealth, robs warriors of the will to fight, ill-fortune, death.³⁵

Boduos: Crow. Battle, death. Accociated with Cathboduâ.³⁶

Cû: Dog. Hunting, healing, death, protection. Associated with several deities, especially the Matres and Nodens.³⁷

Uolcos: Falcon. The Heavens. Associated with Taranis, note also association with the Uolcoi tribe, one of the more powerful tribes in Celtic Europe, with multiple divisions in different regions.³⁸

Gabros: Goat. Fertility, sexuality, abundance. Associated with Lugus, by adoption of Greco-Roman Mercury symbolism.³⁹

Gansi: Goose, swan. Protection, warlike aggression. Associated with several warrior and healer deities.⁴⁰

Epos: Horse. War, battle, sovereignty, beauty, speed, sexual vigor, nobility, fertility, wealth. Associated with Eponâ above all, but also with Taranis, and other deities. ⁴¹

Esox: Salmon. Wisdom, knowledge. ⁴²

Natrîx: Serpent. Wisdom, Underworld, death and rebirth, healing, but also greed and negative forces. Associated with Sironâ but also often depicted as a chthonic monster and enemy of the Gods. Snake-monsters are killed by Taranis, but possibly tamed by Cernunnos.⁴³

Caruos: Deer, stag. Fertility, the forest, the wild, abundance, the Otherworld. Associated above all with Cernunnos.⁴⁴

Elâ: Swan. Shape-changing, Otherworld, often presented as a beautiful, shape-changing maiden.⁴⁵

Lore of the Soul

We have only a few words associated with concepts of the soul, enough to say that the concept of the soul had a bit to do with ideas of breath, the mind, and also the name. We do not have enough to really be sure of any details.

Anatiâ: Soul.⁴⁶

Anatlâ: Breath.⁴⁷

Anman: Name⁴⁸

Kommen: Memory.⁴⁹

Menman: Thought, mind.⁵⁰

Mentyon: Thought.⁵¹

The ancient Gaulish worldview can only be known in general outline, and then mostly from linguistics. We have no great literature in Gaulish, as we do in Greek, Latin, Irish, and Welsh. We have only inscriptions and what can be pieced together from comparative studies. Still, given the paucity of evidence at our disposal, it is surprising how much we can know. We can get ideas of seasons and cosmic principles, of Three Worlds in space, of directional symbolism,, good, evil, honor, destiny and Fate, animal symbolism, and the soul. Together, these comparative scraps of evidence allow us to sketch the lineaments of a worldview.

Cosmic Principles:

Built into the Celtic languages and worldviews are two great cosmic principles that exist in a system of complementary duality. Each is needed to complete the cosmos. Neither by itself can support life and wholeness. We have no direct evidence as to whether the Gauls had words for such principles, but linguistic reconstruction suggests that the words existed in Old Common Celtic, so it would be surprising if the words didn’t survive into Gaulish.

Here, we use the terms from Alexei Kondratiev’s Apple Branch, with meanings taken from Kondratiev, the Brothers Rees’ Celtic Heritage, and a touch of intuition.

Samos: The cosmic principle of the summer, the light, daytime, the Upper World, the living, order, the tame, and the mundane.¹

Giamos: The cosmic principle of the winter, the dark, nighttime, the Lower World, the dead, chaos, the wild, and the magical.²

The alternation of these principles, in the form of day and night, or summer and winter, or waxing and waning moons has profound meaning. It is the means by which time and the calendar are generated.³ It determines which spiritual influences are dominant at any time, and which activities are of good omen.

The Three Worlds:

Modern, Irish-based Celtic Reconstructionists tend to use the three worlds of Land, Sea, and Sky in their practice.⁴ They base this on well-founded mainstream scholarship of early Irish cosmology, which finds the belief reflected in the Irish epic the Táin Bo Cualigne, as well as in various oaths and prayers. ⁵

There is evidence for this same belief among the Gauls as well, in the form of Strabo’s famous quote that the Celts on the Danube “feared nothing so much as that the sky might fall on them”.

Celtic linguists recognize native words for “Heaven”, “Earth” or “the World”, and “the Deep”, in the Celtic languages, that have similar connotations to Land, Sea, and Sky. These include attested words in Gaulish⁶ The archaeological evidence of Gaulish sacrifice, while ambiguous and of many types, reveals at least two kinds that are most likely to celestial and infernal deities.⁷

With that in mind, we can sketch the outlines of a cosmic system. Essentially, it consists of Sky, This World, and the Deep, with the possibility of a World Tree linking them, though this last is conjectural. It resembles the system of Land, Sea, and Sky closely, though I see no reason not to use the Gaulish terms for these things, since we have them, and their connotations are quite different from any words in English.

Albios: The Sky, home of celestial deities, celestial bodies, with connotations of light, purity, and Truth, source of power for the Samos principle⁸

Nemos: Sky, another word for Albios, above, though perhaps more restricted in meaning to the physical sky.⁹

Bitus: This world, home of humanity, animals, plants, and various spirits, acted upon by the Upper and Lower worlds.¹⁰

Mori: Sea, another word for Dumnos below, though definitely more restricted in meaning to the watery sea.¹¹

Dumnos: The Deep, home of Chthonic Deities, spirits of the dead, and certain dark spirits, connotations of darkness, fertility, and mysterious power, source of power for the Giamos principle. ¹²

Bilios: A tree, by extension the World Tree, linking the Three Worlds. Conjectural.¹³

Celestial and Chthonic:

According to Delmarre, there were also attested Gaulish words for “celestial” or “uranian” and “chthonic”.¹⁴ This supports our argument here that the Three Worlds and two cosmic principles were important elements of Gaulish cosmology. That there were words for worlds, descriptive terms for things from above and things from below, and differences in ritual in some places and times, all suggest the centrality of a cosmic system emphasizing the shining Heavens, the dark Deep, and the world between them, over which they alternated influence.

Ueronados: From above, pertaining to Albios, celestial.¹⁵

Andernados: From below, pertaining to Dumnos, chthonic, infernal.¹⁶

The Directions:

The orientation of the directions in Celtic cultures is well-accepted in Celtic linguistics, and in Indo-European linguistics more broadly. The person at the center stands facing East. The West is behind him or her. The South is to the right hand, and the North to the left hand. The South is of good omen, and the North of ill omen¹⁷ The system below reproduces all that, and adds my own conjecture that the East, being the place of sunrise, is to be associated with Samos, while the West, being the place of sunset, is to be associated with Giamos. I also add ideas from the Brothers Rees on the importance of the Center. I do not use the rest of the Irish directional system preserved in The Settling of the Manor of Tara, because I find little convincing evidence of its being known in Gaul.

Are: East, before, in front of, direction of Samos. ¹⁸

Dexsiuos: South, at the right hand, favorable.¹⁹

Eri: West, behind, rear, direction of Giamos.²⁰

Tutos: North, at the left hand, unfavorable.²¹

Medios: Of the middle, central, the center.²²